Polarization-based non-staining cell detection

M. Zhang; K. Ihida-Stansbury; J. Van der Spiegel; N. Engheta

doi:10.1364/OE.20.025378

Polarization-based non-staining cell detection

M. Zhang, K. Ihida-Stansbury, J. Van der Spiegel, and N. Engheta

Optics Express
Vol. 20,
Issue 23,
pp. 25378-25390
(2012)
•https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.20.025378

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M. Zhang, K. Ihida-Stansbury, J. Van der Spiegel, and N. Engheta, "Polarization-based non-staining cell detection," Opt. Express 20, 25378-25390 (2012)

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Related Topics
Table of Contents Category
- Medical Optics and Biotechnology
Optics & Photonics Topics
?

The topics in this list come from the OSA Optics and Photonics Topics applied to this article.
Previously assigned OCIS codes
- Image processing (100.0100)
- Polarization-selective devices (230.5440)
- Polarization (260.5430)

About this Article
History
- Original Manuscript: July 6, 2012
- Revised Manuscript: October 18, 2012
- Manuscript Accepted: October 18, 2012
- Published: October 24, 2012
Virtual Issues
Virtual Journal for Biomedical Optics Vol. 7, Iss. 12

Accessible

Open Access

Abstract

Polarization is an important characteristic of electromagnetic waves, which can not be detected by either the human visual system or traditional image sensors. Motivated by various animal species with polarization vision as well as by the prospect of improving the image quality of the imaging systems, we are exploring the potential of polarization for microscope imaging. The most powerful techniques for molecule monitoring requires complex preprocessing for labeling the sample with different dyes. In this paper, we propose a cell detection method using polarization imaging without any need for staining target cell samples with any chemical dye. The motivation for this work is to develop an optical imaging technique that is simple and that can be used on live cells. The polarization sensitivity of cell samples is studied in this paper. A definition for the quantity called “polarization deviation” is proposed in order to identify clearer the difference between target cells and the background. Based on the polarization deviation detection method, a three-parameter polarization imaging method is employed to further simplify the image capture procedure for the proposed label-free cell detection. A color imaging methodology based on the well-known color space is utilized in order to represent the captured polarization information using computer graphics.

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References

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|
Year
|
Author
|
Publication

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[Crossref]
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[Crossref]
D. Goldstein, “Polarized Light” (Marcel Dekker: New York, 2003).
[Crossref]
T. H. Waterman, “Polarization sensitivity” in The Handbook of Sensory Physiology, vol. VII/6B Vision in Invertebrates, edited by H. Autrum, (Springer-Verlag, New York, 1981).
[Crossref]
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[Crossref] [PubMed]
T. Labhart, “Polarization opponent interneurons in the insect visual system,” Nature 331, 435–437 (1988).
[Crossref]
R. Wehner, “Neurobiology of polarization vision,” TRENDS NEUROSCI 12, 353–359, (1989).
[Crossref] [PubMed]
T. W. Cronin and J. Marshall, “Parallel processing and image analysis in the eyes of mantis shrimps,” Biol. Bull. 200, 177–183 (2001).
[Crossref] [PubMed]
S. G. Demos, W. B. Wang, and R. R. Alfano, “Imaging objects hidden in scattering media with fluorescence polarization preservation of contrast agents,” Appl. Opt. 37, 792–797 (1998).
[Crossref]
J. G. Walker, P. C. Chang, and K. I. Hopcraft, “Visibility depth improvement in active polarization imaging in scattering media,” Appl. Opt. 39, 4933–4941 (2000).
[Crossref]
H. H. Wang, C. W. Sun, Y. M. Wang, Y. W. Kiang, and C. C. Yang, “Determination of the depth of a scattering target in a turbid medium with polarization discrimination of transmitted signals,” Opt. Lett. 28, 25–27 (2003).
[Crossref] [PubMed]
P. C. Y. Chang, J. C. Flitton, K. I. Hopcraft, E. Jakeman, D. L. Jordan, and J. G. Walker, “Improving visibility depth in passive underwater imaging by use of polarization,” Appl. Opt. 42, 2794–803 (2003).
[Crossref] [PubMed]
Y. Y. Schechner, N. Karpel, T. Israel, and I. Technology, “Clear Underwater Vision,” Pattern Recogn 1, 536–543 (2004).
Y. Y. Schechner and N. Karpel, “Recovery of Underwater Visibility and Structure by Polarization Analysis,” IEEE J Oceanic Eng. 30, 570–587 (2005).
[Crossref]
T. Treibitz and Y. Y. Schechner, “Active polarization descattering,” IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell. 31, 385–399 (2009).
[Crossref] [PubMed]
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[Crossref] [PubMed]
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[Crossref] [PubMed]
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[Crossref]
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[Crossref] [PubMed]
S. S. Lin, K. M. Yemelyanov, E. N. Pugh, and N. Engheta, “Polarization-based and specular-reflection-based noncontact latent fingerprint imaging and lifting,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 23, 2137–2153 (2006).
[Crossref]
S. S. Lin, K. M. Yemelyanov, E. N. Pugh, and N. Engheta, “Separation and contrast enhancement of overlapping cast shadow components using polarization,” Opt. Express 14, 7099–7108 (2006).
[Crossref] [PubMed]
Y. Y. Schechner, J. Shamir, and N. Kiryati, “Vision through semireflecting media: polarization analysis,” Opt. Lett. 24, 1088–1090 (1999).
[Crossref]
T. Germer and M. Fasolka, “Characterizing surface roughness of thin films by polarized light,” Proc. SPIE 518, 264–275 (2003).
[Crossref]
D. Miyazaki, R. Tan, K. Hara, and K. Ikeuchi, “Polarization-based Inverse Rendering from a Single View,” in Proceedings of Ninth IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (IEEE2003), pp. 982–987.
[Crossref]
F. Goudail and P. Rfrgier, “Statistical algorithms for target detection in coherent active polarimetric images,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 18, 3049–3060 (2001).
[Crossref]
F. Goudail and P. Rfrgier, “Statistical techniques for target detection in polarization diversity images,” Opt. Lett. 26, 644–646 (2001).
[Crossref]
F. Goudail, P. Terrier, Y. Takakura, L. Bigu, F. Galland, and V. DeVlaminck, “Target detection with a liquid-crystal-based passive Stokes polarimeter.,” Appl. Opt. 43, 274–82 (2004).
[Crossref] [PubMed]
R. Nothdurft and G. Yao, “Expression of target optical properties in subsurface polarization-gated imaging,” Opt. Express 13, 4185–4195 (2005).
[Crossref] [PubMed]
R. C. Gonzalez and P. Wintz, “Image Enhancement,” in Digital Image Processing (Addison Weslwy, 1987), pp. 146–152.
G. D. Bernard and R. Wehner, “Functional similarities between polarization vision and color vision,” Vision Res. 17, 1019–1028 (1977).
[Crossref] [PubMed]
M. P. Rowe, E. N. Pugh, and N. Engheta, “Polarizationdifference imaging: a biologically inspired technique for observation through scattering media,” Opt. Lett. 20, 608–610 (1995).
[Crossref] [PubMed]
J. S. Tyo, M. P. Rowe, E. N. Pugh, and N. Engheta, “Target detection in optically scattering media by polarization-difference imaging,” Appl. Opt. 35, 1855–1870 (1996).
[Crossref] [PubMed]
J. S. Tyo, E. N. Pugh, and N. Engheta, “Colorimetric representation for use with polarization-difference imaging of objects in scattering media,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 15, 367–374 (1998).
[Crossref]
S.-S. Lin, K. M. Yemelyanov, E. N. Pugh, and N. Engheta, “Separation and contrast enhancement of overlapping cast shadow components using polarization,” Opt. Express 14, 7099–7108 (2006).
[Crossref] [PubMed]
S.-S. Lin, K. M. Yemelyanov, E. N. Pugh, and N. Engheta, “Polarization-based and specular-reflection-based noncontact latent fingerprint imaging and lifting,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 23, 2137–2153 (2006).
[Crossref]
K. M. Yemelyanov, S. S. Lin, W. Q. Luis, E. N. Pugh, and N. Engheta, “Bio-inspired display of polarization information using selected visual cues,” Proc. of SPIE 5158, 71–84 (2003).
[Crossref]

2009 (1)

T. Treibitz and Y. Y. Schechner, “Active polarization descattering,” IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell. 31, 385–399 (2009).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

2006 (5)

S.-S. Lin, K. M. Yemelyanov, E. N. Pugh, and N. Engheta, “Separation and contrast enhancement of overlapping cast shadow components using polarization,” Opt. Express 14, 7099–7108 (2006).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

S.-S. Lin, K. M. Yemelyanov, E. N. Pugh, and N. Engheta, “Polarization-based and specular-reflection-based noncontact latent fingerprint imaging and lifting,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 23, 2137–2153 (2006).
[Crossref]

J. S. Tyo, D. L. Goldstein, D. B. Chenault, and J. A. Shaw, “Review of passive imaging polarimetry for remote sensing applications,” Appl. Opt. 45, 5453–5469 (2006).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

S. S. Lin, K. M. Yemelyanov, E. N. Pugh, and N. Engheta, “Polarization-based and specular-reflection-based noncontact latent fingerprint imaging and lifting,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 23, 2137–2153 (2006).
[Crossref]

S. S. Lin, K. M. Yemelyanov, E. N. Pugh, and N. Engheta, “Separation and contrast enhancement of overlapping cast shadow components using polarization,” Opt. Express 14, 7099–7108 (2006).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

2005 (2)

Y. Y. Schechner and N. Karpel, “Recovery of Underwater Visibility and Structure by Polarization Analysis,” IEEE J Oceanic Eng. 30, 570–587 (2005).
[Crossref]

R. Nothdurft and G. Yao, “Expression of target optical properties in subsurface polarization-gated imaging,” Opt. Express 13, 4185–4195 (2005).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

2004 (2)

F. Goudail, P. Terrier, Y. Takakura, L. Bigu, F. Galland, and V. DeVlaminck, “Target detection with a liquid-crystal-based passive Stokes polarimeter.,” Appl. Opt. 43, 274–82 (2004).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Y. Y. Schechner, N. Karpel, T. Israel, and I. Technology, “Clear Underwater Vision,” Pattern Recogn 1, 536–543 (2004).

2003 (4)

H. H. Wang, C. W. Sun, Y. M. Wang, Y. W. Kiang, and C. C. Yang, “Determination of the depth of a scattering target in a turbid medium with polarization discrimination of transmitted signals,” Opt. Lett. 28, 25–27 (2003).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

P. C. Y. Chang, J. C. Flitton, K. I. Hopcraft, E. Jakeman, D. L. Jordan, and J. G. Walker, “Improving visibility depth in passive underwater imaging by use of polarization,” Appl. Opt. 42, 2794–803 (2003).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

T. Germer and M. Fasolka, “Characterizing surface roughness of thin films by polarized light,” Proc. SPIE 518, 264–275 (2003).
[Crossref]

K. M. Yemelyanov, S. S. Lin, W. Q. Luis, E. N. Pugh, and N. Engheta, “Bio-inspired display of polarization information using selected visual cues,” Proc. of SPIE 5158, 71–84 (2003).
[Crossref]

2001 (4)

F. Goudail and P. Rfrgier, “Statistical algorithms for target detection in coherent active polarimetric images,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 18, 3049–3060 (2001).
[Crossref]

F. Goudail and P. Rfrgier, “Statistical techniques for target detection in polarization diversity images,” Opt. Lett. 26, 644–646 (2001).
[Crossref]

J. L. Deuz, F. M. Bron, C. Devaux, P. Goloub, M. Herman, B. Lafrance, F. Maignan, A. Marchand, F. Nadal, G. Perry, and D. Tanr, “Remote sensing of aerosols over land surfaces from POLDER-ADEOS-1 polarized measurements”, J. Geophys. Res. 106, 4913–4926 (2001).
[Crossref]

T. W. Cronin and J. Marshall, “Parallel processing and image analysis in the eyes of mantis shrimps,” Biol. Bull. 200, 177–183 (2001).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

1989 (1)

R. Wehner, “Neurobiology of polarization vision,” TRENDS NEUROSCI 12, 353–359, (1989).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

1988 (1)

T. Labhart, “Polarization opponent interneurons in the insect visual system,” Nature 331, 435–437 (1988).
[Crossref]

1977 (1)

G. D. Bernard and R. Wehner, “Functional similarities between polarization vision and color vision,” Vision Res. 17, 1019–1028 (1977).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

1976 (1)

R. Wehner, “Polarized-light navigation by insects,” SCI AM 235, 106–114, (1976).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

1942 (2)

F. Zernike, “Phase contrast, a new method for the microscopic observation of transparent objects,” Physica 9, 686–698 (1942).
[Crossref]

F. Zernike, “Phasecontrast, a new method for the microscopicobservation of transparentobjects part II,” Physica 9, 974–980 (1942).
[Crossref]

Alfano, R. R.

S. G. Demos, W. B. Wang, and R. R. Alfano, “Imaging objects hidden in scattering media with fluorescence polarization preservation of contrast agents,” Appl. Opt. 37, 792–797 (1998).
[Crossref]

Bernard, G. D.

G. D. Bernard and R. Wehner, “Functional similarities between polarization vision and color vision,” Vision Res. 17, 1019–1028 (1977).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Bigu, L.

Bron, F. M.

Chang, P. C.

J. G. Walker, P. C. Chang, and K. I. Hopcraft, “Visibility depth improvement in active polarization imaging in scattering media,” Appl. Opt. 39, 4933–4941 (2000).
[Crossref]

Chang, P. C. Y.

Chenault, D. B.

J. S. Tyo, D. L. Goldstein, D. B. Chenault, and J. A. Shaw, “Review of passive imaging polarimetry for remote sensing applications,” Appl. Opt. 45, 5453–5469 (2006).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Clark, G.

G. Clark, Staining Procedures (Williams and Wilkins, 1981).

G. Clark, F. H. Kasten, and H. J. Conn, History of Staining (Williams and Wilkins, 1981).

Conn, H. J.

H. J. Conn, Biological Stains: A Handbook on the Nature and Uses of the Dyes Employed in the Biological Laboratory (Biotech Publications, 1953).

G. Clark, F. H. Kasten, and H. J. Conn, History of Staining (Williams and Wilkins, 1981).

Cronin, T. W.

T. W. Cronin and J. Marshall, “Parallel processing and image analysis in the eyes of mantis shrimps,” Biol. Bull. 200, 177–183 (2001).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Demos, S. G.

S. G. Demos, W. B. Wang, and R. R. Alfano, “Imaging objects hidden in scattering media with fluorescence polarization preservation of contrast agents,” Appl. Opt. 37, 792–797 (1998).
[Crossref]

Deuz, J. L.

Devaux, C.

DeVlaminck, V.

Egan, W. G.

Engheta, N.

K. M. Yemelyanov, S. S. Lin, W. Q. Luis, E. N. Pugh, and N. Engheta, “Bio-inspired display of polarization information using selected visual cues,” Proc. of SPIE 5158, 71–84 (2003).
[Crossref]

J. S. Tyo, M. P. Rowe, E. N. Pugh, and N. Engheta, “Target detection in optically scatter media by polarization-difference imaging”, Appl. Opt. 35, 1855–1870 (1996).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

J. S. Tyo, M. P. Rowe, E. N. Pugh, and N. Engheta, “Target detection in optically scattering media by polarization-difference imaging,” Appl. Opt. 35, 1855–1870 (1996).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Fasolka, M.

T. Germer and M. Fasolka, “Characterizing surface roughness of thin films by polarized light,” Proc. SPIE 518, 264–275 (2003).
[Crossref]

Flitton, J. C.

Galland, F.

Germer, T.

T. Germer and M. Fasolka, “Characterizing surface roughness of thin films by polarized light,” Proc. SPIE 518, 264–275 (2003).
[Crossref]

Goldstein, D.

D. Goldstein, “Polarized Light” (Marcel Dekker: New York, 2003).
[Crossref]

Goldstein, D. L.

J. S. Tyo, D. L. Goldstein, D. B. Chenault, and J. A. Shaw, “Review of passive imaging polarimetry for remote sensing applications,” Appl. Opt. 45, 5453–5469 (2006).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Goloub, P.

Gonzalez, R. C.

R. C. Gonzalez and P. Wintz, “Image Enhancement,” in Digital Image Processing (Addison Weslwy, 1987), pp. 146–152.

Goudail, F.

F. Goudail and P. Rfrgier, “Statistical techniques for target detection in polarization diversity images,” Opt. Lett. 26, 644–646 (2001).
[Crossref]

F. Goudail and P. Rfrgier, “Statistical algorithms for target detection in coherent active polarimetric images,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 18, 3049–3060 (2001).
[Crossref]

Hara, K.

D. Miyazaki, R. Tan, K. Hara, and K. Ikeuchi, “Polarization-based Inverse Rendering from a Single View,” in Proceedings of Ninth IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (IEEE2003), pp. 982–987.
[Crossref]

Herman, M.

Hopcraft, K. I.

J. G. Walker, P. C. Chang, and K. I. Hopcraft, “Visibility depth improvement in active polarization imaging in scattering media,” Appl. Opt. 39, 4933–4941 (2000).
[Crossref]

Ikeuchi, K.

Israel, T.

Y. Y. Schechner, N. Karpel, T. Israel, and I. Technology, “Clear Underwater Vision,” Pattern Recogn 1, 536–543 (2004).

Jakeman, E.

Johnson, W. R.

Jordan, D. L.

Karpel, N.

Y. Y. Schechner and N. Karpel, “Recovery of Underwater Visibility and Structure by Polarization Analysis,” IEEE J Oceanic Eng. 30, 570–587 (2005).
[Crossref]

Y. Y. Schechner, N. Karpel, T. Israel, and I. Technology, “Clear Underwater Vision,” Pattern Recogn 1, 536–543 (2004).

Kasten, F. H.

G. Clark, F. H. Kasten, and H. J. Conn, History of Staining (Williams and Wilkins, 1981).

Kiang, Y. W.

Kiryati, N.

Y. Y. Schechner, J. Shamir, and N. Kiryati, “Vision through semireflecting media: polarization analysis,” Opt. Lett. 24, 1088–1090 (1999).
[Crossref]

Labhart, T.

T. Labhart, “Polarization opponent interneurons in the insect visual system,” Nature 331, 435–437 (1988).
[Crossref]

Lafrance, B.

Lin, S. S.

K. M. Yemelyanov, S. S. Lin, W. Q. Luis, E. N. Pugh, and N. Engheta, “Bio-inspired display of polarization information using selected visual cues,” Proc. of SPIE 5158, 71–84 (2003).
[Crossref]

Lin, S.-S.

Luis, W. Q.

K. M. Yemelyanov, S. S. Lin, W. Q. Luis, E. N. Pugh, and N. Engheta, “Bio-inspired display of polarization information using selected visual cues,” Proc. of SPIE 5158, 71–84 (2003).
[Crossref]

Lyot, B.

B. Lyot, Research on the Polarization of Light from Planets and Some Substances (Ann. Observatoire de Paris, Section de Meudon1929).

Maignan, F.

Marchand, A.

Marshall, J.

T. W. Cronin and J. Marshall, “Parallel processing and image analysis in the eyes of mantis shrimps,” Biol. Bull. 200, 177–183 (2001).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Miyazaki, D.

Nadal, F.

Namer, E.

S. Shwartz, E. Namer, and Y. Schechner, “Blind Haze Seperation,” in Proceedings of IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (IEEE2006), pp. 1984–1991.

Nothdurft, R.

R. Nothdurft and G. Yao, “Expression of target optical properties in subsurface polarization-gated imaging,” Opt. Express 13, 4185–4195 (2005).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Perry, G.

Pugh, E. N.

K. M. Yemelyanov, S. S. Lin, W. Q. Luis, E. N. Pugh, and N. Engheta, “Bio-inspired display of polarization information using selected visual cues,” Proc. of SPIE 5158, 71–84 (2003).
[Crossref]

J. S. Tyo, M. P. Rowe, E. N. Pugh, and N. Engheta, “Target detection in optically scatter media by polarization-difference imaging”, Appl. Opt. 35, 1855–1870 (1996).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

J. S. Tyo, M. P. Rowe, E. N. Pugh, and N. Engheta, “Target detection in optically scattering media by polarization-difference imaging,” Appl. Opt. 35, 1855–1870 (1996).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Rfrgier, P.

F. Goudail and P. Rfrgier, “Statistical algorithms for target detection in coherent active polarimetric images,” J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 18, 3049–3060 (2001).
[Crossref]

F. Goudail and P. Rfrgier, “Statistical techniques for target detection in polarization diversity images,” Opt. Lett. 26, 644–646 (2001).
[Crossref]

Rowe, M. P.

J. S. Tyo, M. P. Rowe, E. N. Pugh, and N. Engheta, “Target detection in optically scattering media by polarization-difference imaging,” Appl. Opt. 35, 1855–1870 (1996).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

J. S. Tyo, M. P. Rowe, E. N. Pugh, and N. Engheta, “Target detection in optically scatter media by polarization-difference imaging”, Appl. Opt. 35, 1855–1870 (1996).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Schechner, Y.

S. Shwartz, E. Namer, and Y. Schechner, “Blind Haze Seperation,” in Proceedings of IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (IEEE2006), pp. 1984–1991.

Schechner, Y. Y.

T. Treibitz and Y. Y. Schechner, “Active polarization descattering,” IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell. 31, 385–399 (2009).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Y. Y. Schechner and N. Karpel, “Recovery of Underwater Visibility and Structure by Polarization Analysis,” IEEE J Oceanic Eng. 30, 570–587 (2005).
[Crossref]

Y. Y. Schechner, N. Karpel, T. Israel, and I. Technology, “Clear Underwater Vision,” Pattern Recogn 1, 536–543 (2004).

Y. Y. Schechner, J. Shamir, and N. Kiryati, “Vision through semireflecting media: polarization analysis,” Opt. Lett. 24, 1088–1090 (1999).
[Crossref]

Shamir, J.

Y. Y. Schechner, J. Shamir, and N. Kiryati, “Vision through semireflecting media: polarization analysis,” Opt. Lett. 24, 1088–1090 (1999).
[Crossref]

Shaw, J. A.

J. S. Tyo, D. L. Goldstein, D. B. Chenault, and J. A. Shaw, “Review of passive imaging polarimetry for remote sensing applications,” Appl. Opt. 45, 5453–5469 (2006).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Shwartz, S.

S. Shwartz, E. Namer, and Y. Schechner, “Blind Haze Seperation,” in Proceedings of IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (IEEE2006), pp. 1984–1991.

Stephens, D.

D. Stephens, Cell Imaging (Scion, 2006).

Sun, C. W.

Takakura, Y.

Tan, R.

Tanr, D.

Technology, I.

Y. Y. Schechner, N. Karpel, T. Israel, and I. Technology, “Clear Underwater Vision,” Pattern Recogn 1, 536–543 (2004).

Terrier, P.

Treibitz, T.

T. Treibitz and Y. Y. Schechner, “Active polarization descattering,” IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell. 31, 385–399 (2009).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Tyo, J. S.

J. S. Tyo, D. L. Goldstein, D. B. Chenault, and J. A. Shaw, “Review of passive imaging polarimetry for remote sensing applications,” Appl. Opt. 45, 5453–5469 (2006).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

J. S. Tyo, M. P. Rowe, E. N. Pugh, and N. Engheta, “Target detection in optically scatter media by polarization-difference imaging”, Appl. Opt. 35, 1855–1870 (1996).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

J. S. Tyo, M. P. Rowe, E. N. Pugh, and N. Engheta, “Target detection in optically scattering media by polarization-difference imaging,” Appl. Opt. 35, 1855–1870 (1996).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Walker, J. G.

J. G. Walker, P. C. Chang, and K. I. Hopcraft, “Visibility depth improvement in active polarization imaging in scattering media,” Appl. Opt. 39, 4933–4941 (2000).
[Crossref]

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Wang, W. B.

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Fig. 1 (a) Raw image captured under unpolarized illumination. (b) A zoom-in view of local zone, two subregions are labeled as Region I and Region II, respectively.

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Fig. 2 (a) The digitized value of randomly selected pixels captured under different polarization angles of the linearly polarized illumination light, from Region I (as illustrated in red) and Region II (as illustrated in blue), respectively. (b) The distribution of the polarization Deviation σ_p for Region I (as illustrated in red) and Region II (as illustrated in blue), respectively.

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Fig. 3 (a) Raw captured intensity image under unpolarized illumination; (b) enhanced intensity image after histogram equalization, and (c) the image formed by distribution of the polarization deviation. The sensitivity index d′ is listed under each image.

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Fig. 4 Categorization results of “signal present” and “signal absent” employing a σ_th equals to (a) 30; (b) 40; and (c) 50.

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Fig. 5 A comparison of sensitivity index of different standard Deviation threshold values. (a) various “signal-present” regions are selected as testing samples; (b) The sensitivity index as shown on the y-axis changes as the threshold σ_th is increased.

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Fig. 6 Value of the captured intensity of pixels under different angles of linearly polarized light. The pixels, represented by different colors, are randomly selected from the “signal present” region.

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Fig. 7 Microphotography of the human pulmonary vascular smooth muscle cells illuminated under three different linear polarization angles of incident beam (a) χ₁ = 0°, (b) χ₂ = 60°, (c) χ₃ = 120°.

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Fig. 8 (a) The degree of linear polarization p which varies from 0 to 1; (b) the orientation angle Ψ calculated varying from

- \frac{π}{2}

\frac{π}{2}

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Fig. 9 The post-processing results of the polarization degree calculated from three-parameter polarization imaging, using a threshold filter employing different cut-off threshold value σ_th equals to (a) 30; (b) 40; and (c) 50.

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Fig. 10 Three-parameter polarization color plotting while (a) no filter is employed, and a high-pass filter with a cut-off threshold equals to (b) 30, (c) 40 and (d) 50 is used, respectively.

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Fig. 11 Live cell detection under unpolarized illumination (first row), and using the three-parameter polarization methodology without (second row) or with (third row) a high pass filter. The results from the three-parameter polarization detection method are plotted in HSV pseudo color domain. The sample cells include (a) human pulmonary vascular smooth muscle cells, and (b) human oral epithelial cavity cells.

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Tables (2)

Table 1 A Comparison of Detection Sensitivity of the Unpolarizedly Illuminated Image (I), the Standard Deviation Image (σ_p), and the three-parameter polarization image (L_p)

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Table 2 A Comparison of Detection Sensitivity while Using Different Combination of Angles

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Equations (7)

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σ_{p} (x, y) = \sqrt{\frac{1}{n} \sum_{i = 0}^{n - 1} {[I (x, y | χ = χ_{i}) - μ_{p} (x, y)]}^{2}}

μ_{p} (x, y) = \frac{1}{n} \sum_{i = 0}^{n - 1} [I (x, y | χ = χ_{i})]

d^{'} = \frac{| μ_{s} - μ_{n} |}{\sqrt{\frac{1}{2} (σ_{s}^{2} + σ_{n}^{2})}}

ℍ = {\begin{array}{l} 0 & σ_{p} (x, y) < σ_{t h} \\ 1 & σ_{p} (x, y) > σ_{t h} \end{array}

I_{χ} = \bar{L} [1 + p \cos (2 ψ - 2 χ)] = \bar{L} + L_{p} \cos (2 ψ - 2 χ)

[\begin{matrix} I_{0} \\ I_{60} \\ I_{120} \end{matrix}] = [\begin{matrix} 1 & 1 & 0 \\ 1 & \cos (120 °) & - \sin (120 °) \\ 1 & \cos (240 °) & - \sin (240 °) \end{matrix}] [\begin{matrix} \bar{L} \\ L_{p} \cos 2 ψ \\ L_{p} \sin 2 ψ \end{matrix}]

\begin{array}{l} \bar{L} = I_{60 °} + I_{120 °} - I_{0 °} \\ L_{p} = \sqrt{{(\bar{L} - I_{0 °})}^{2} + \frac{1}{3} {(I_{60 °} - I_{120 °})}^{2}} \\ ψ = \tan^{- 1} [\frac{I_{60 °} - I_{120 °}}{\sqrt{3} (\bar{L} - I_{0 °})}] \end{array}

Pixel value		σ_th = 30^†	σ_th = 40^†	σ_th = 50^†
Unpolarized intensity (I)	0.1047	N/A	N/A	N/A
Polarization Deviation (σ_p)	1.1027^♯	1.4282	1.0309	0.8063
Predicted Sin-Variation (L_p)^‡	0.8187	0.9418	0.8869	0.7044

Δχ^†	20°	30°	40°	50°	60°	70°
σ_th = 0	0.1649^♯	0.5714	0.6433	0.7568	0.8187	0.7279
σ_th = 30^‡	0.1836	0.4817	0.8766	0.8744	0.9418	0.9272

Pixel value		σ_th = 30^†	σ_th = 40^†	σ_th = 50^†
Unpolarized intensity (I)	0.1047	N/A	N/A	N/A
Polarization Deviation (σ_p)	1.1027^♯	1.4282	1.0309	0.8063
Predicted Sin-Variation (L_p)^‡	0.8187	0.9418	0.8869	0.7044

Δχ^†	20°	30°	40°	50°	60°	70°
σ_th = 0	0.1649^♯	0.5714	0.6433	0.7568	0.8187	0.7279
σ_th = 30^‡	0.1836	0.4817	0.8766	0.8744	0.9418	0.9272

Abstract

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