Abstract

We demonstrate a new 3D fabrication method to achieve the same results as those obtained by the two-photon excitation technique, by using a simple one-photon elaboration method in a very low absorption regime. Desirable 2D and 3D submicrometric structures, such as spiral, chiral, and woodpile architectures, with feature size as small as 190 nm have been fabricated, by using just a few milliwatts of a continuous-wave laser at 532 nm and a commercial SU8 photoresist. Different aspects of the direct laser writing based on ultralow one-photon absorption (LOPA) technique are investigated and compared with the TPA technique, showing several advantages, such as simplicity and low cost.

© 2013 Optical Society of America

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2011 (1)

2010 (1)

M. Thiel, J. Fischer, G. V. Freymann, and M. Wegener, “Direct laser writing of three-dimensional submicron structures using a continuous-wave laser at 532 nm,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 97, 221102 (2010).
[Crossref]

2009 (1)

M. Farsari and B. N. Chichkov, “Materials processing: two-photon fabrication,” Nat. Photonics 3, 450–452 (2009).
[Crossref]

2007 (1)

2005 (2)

2004 (2)

C.-H. Lee, T.-W. Chang, K.-L. Lee, J.-Y. Lin, and J. Wang, “Fabricating high-aspect-ratio sub-diffraction-limit structures on silicon with two-photon photopolymerization and reactive ion etching,” Appl. Phys. A 79, 2027– 2031 (2004).
[Crossref]

M. Deubel, G. Von Freymann, M. Wegener, S. Pereira, K. Busch, and C. M. Soukoulis, “Direct laser writing of three-dimensional photonic-crystal templates for telecommunications,” Nat. Mater. 3, 444–447 (2004).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

2003 (3)

W. R. Zipfel, R. M. Williams, and W. W. Webb, “Nonlinear magic: multiphoton microscopy in the biosciences,” Nat. Biotechnol. 21, 1369–1377 (2003).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

T. Kondo, S. Matsuo, S. Juodkazis, V. Mizeikis, and H. Misawa, “Multiphoton fabrication of periodic structures by multibeam interference of femtosecond pulses,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 2758–2560 (2003).
[Crossref]

X. Wang, J. F. Xu, H. M. Su, Z. H. Zeng, Y. L. Chen, H. Z. Wang, Y. K. Pang, and W. Y. Tam, “Three-dimensional photonic crystals fabricated by visible light holographic lithography,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 2212–2214 (2003).
[Crossref]

2002 (1)

H.-B. Sun, T. Tanaka, and S. Kawata, “Three-dimensional focal spots related to two-photon excitation,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 80, 3673–3675 (2002).
[Crossref]

2001 (1)

S. Kawata, H.-B. Sun, T. Tanaka, and K. Takada, “Finer features for functional microdevices,” Nature 412, 697–698 (2001).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

2000 (2)

S. Maruo and K. Ikuta, “Three-dimensional microfabrication by use of single-photon-absorbed polymerization,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 76, 2656–2658 (2000).
[Crossref]

M. Campbell, D. N. Sharp, M. T. Harrison, R. G. Denning, and A. J. Turberfield, “Fabrication of photonic crystals for the visible spectrum by holographic lithography,” Nature 404, 53–56 (2000).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

1999 (1)

B. H. Cumpston, S. P. Ananthavel, S. Barlow, D. L. Dyer, J. E. Ehrlich, L. L. Erskine, A. A. Heikal, S. M. Kuebler, I.-Y. S. Lee, D. McCord-Maughon, J. Qin, H. Rckel, M. Rumi, X.-L. Wu, S. R. Marder, and J. W. Perry, “Two-photon polymerization initiators for three dimensional optical data storage and microfabrication,” Nature 398, 51–54 (1999).
[Crossref]

1998 (1)

1990 (1)

W. Denk, J. H. Strickler, and W. W. Webb, “Two-photon laser scanning fluorescence microscopy,” Science 248, 73–76 (1990).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

1989 (2)

C. Rensch, S. Hell, M. V. Schickfus, and S. Hunklinger, “Laser scanner for direct writing lithography,” Appl. Opt. 28, 3754–3758 (1989).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

D. A. Parthenopoulos and P. M. Rentzepis, “Three-dimensional optical storage memory,” Science 245, 843–845 (1989).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

1959 (1)

B. Richards and E. Wolf, “Electromagnetic diffraction in optical systems. II. Structure of the image field in an aplanatic system,” Proc. Roy. Soc. A 253, 358–379 (1959).
[Crossref]

Ananthavel, S. P.

B. H. Cumpston, S. P. Ananthavel, S. Barlow, D. L. Dyer, J. E. Ehrlich, L. L. Erskine, A. A. Heikal, S. M. Kuebler, I.-Y. S. Lee, D. McCord-Maughon, J. Qin, H. Rckel, M. Rumi, X.-L. Wu, S. R. Marder, and J. W. Perry, “Two-photon polymerization initiators for three dimensional optical data storage and microfabrication,” Nature 398, 51–54 (1999).
[Crossref]

Baets, R.

Barlow, S.

W. Haske, V. W. Chen, J. M. Hales, W. Dong, S. Barlow, S. R. Marder, and J. W. Perry, “65 nm feature sizes using visible wavelength 3-D multiphoton lithography,” Opt. Express 15, 3426–3436 (2007).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

B. H. Cumpston, S. P. Ananthavel, S. Barlow, D. L. Dyer, J. E. Ehrlich, L. L. Erskine, A. A. Heikal, S. M. Kuebler, I.-Y. S. Lee, D. McCord-Maughon, J. Qin, H. Rckel, M. Rumi, X.-L. Wu, S. R. Marder, and J. W. Perry, “Two-photon polymerization initiators for three dimensional optical data storage and microfabrication,” Nature 398, 51–54 (1999).
[Crossref]

Beckx, S.

Bienstman, P.

Bogaerts, W.

Busch, K.

M. Deubel, G. Von Freymann, M. Wegener, S. Pereira, K. Busch, and C. M. Soukoulis, “Direct laser writing of three-dimensional photonic-crystal templates for telecommunications,” Nat. Mater. 3, 444–447 (2004).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Campbell, M.

M. Campbell, D. N. Sharp, M. T. Harrison, R. G. Denning, and A. J. Turberfield, “Fabrication of photonic crystals for the visible spectrum by holographic lithography,” Nature 404, 53–56 (2000).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Campenhout, J. V.

Chang, T.-W.

C.-H. Lee, T.-W. Chang, K.-L. Lee, J.-Y. Lin, and J. Wang, “Fabricating high-aspect-ratio sub-diffraction-limit structures on silicon with two-photon photopolymerization and reactive ion etching,” Appl. Phys. A 79, 2027– 2031 (2004).
[Crossref]

Chen, V. W.

Chen, Y. L.

X. Wang, J. F. Xu, H. M. Su, Z. H. Zeng, Y. L. Chen, H. Z. Wang, Y. K. Pang, and W. Y. Tam, “Three-dimensional photonic crystals fabricated by visible light holographic lithography,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 2212–2214 (2003).
[Crossref]

Chichkov, B. N.

M. Farsari and B. N. Chichkov, “Materials processing: two-photon fabrication,” Nat. Photonics 3, 450–452 (2009).
[Crossref]

Cumpston, B. H.

B. H. Cumpston, S. P. Ananthavel, S. Barlow, D. L. Dyer, J. E. Ehrlich, L. L. Erskine, A. A. Heikal, S. M. Kuebler, I.-Y. S. Lee, D. McCord-Maughon, J. Qin, H. Rckel, M. Rumi, X.-L. Wu, S. R. Marder, and J. W. Perry, “Two-photon polymerization initiators for three dimensional optical data storage and microfabrication,” Nature 398, 51–54 (1999).
[Crossref]

Danileviius, P.

Denk, W.

W. Denk, J. H. Strickler, and W. W. Webb, “Two-photon laser scanning fluorescence microscopy,” Science 248, 73–76 (1990).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Denning, R. G.

M. Campbell, D. N. Sharp, M. T. Harrison, R. G. Denning, and A. J. Turberfield, “Fabrication of photonic crystals for the visible spectrum by holographic lithography,” Nature 404, 53–56 (2000).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Deubel, M.

M. Deubel, G. Von Freymann, M. Wegener, S. Pereira, K. Busch, and C. M. Soukoulis, “Direct laser writing of three-dimensional photonic-crystal templates for telecommunications,” Nat. Mater. 3, 444–447 (2004).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Doan, V.

Dong, W.

Dumon, P.

Dyer, D. L.

B. H. Cumpston, S. P. Ananthavel, S. Barlow, D. L. Dyer, J. E. Ehrlich, L. L. Erskine, A. A. Heikal, S. M. Kuebler, I.-Y. S. Lee, D. McCord-Maughon, J. Qin, H. Rckel, M. Rumi, X.-L. Wu, S. R. Marder, and J. W. Perry, “Two-photon polymerization initiators for three dimensional optical data storage and microfabrication,” Nature 398, 51–54 (1999).
[Crossref]

Ehrlich, J. E.

B. H. Cumpston, S. P. Ananthavel, S. Barlow, D. L. Dyer, J. E. Ehrlich, L. L. Erskine, A. A. Heikal, S. M. Kuebler, I.-Y. S. Lee, D. McCord-Maughon, J. Qin, H. Rckel, M. Rumi, X.-L. Wu, S. R. Marder, and J. W. Perry, “Two-photon polymerization initiators for three dimensional optical data storage and microfabrication,” Nature 398, 51–54 (1999).
[Crossref]

Erskine, L. L.

B. H. Cumpston, S. P. Ananthavel, S. Barlow, D. L. Dyer, J. E. Ehrlich, L. L. Erskine, A. A. Heikal, S. M. Kuebler, I.-Y. S. Lee, D. McCord-Maughon, J. Qin, H. Rckel, M. Rumi, X.-L. Wu, S. R. Marder, and J. W. Perry, “Two-photon polymerization initiators for three dimensional optical data storage and microfabrication,” Nature 398, 51–54 (1999).
[Crossref]

Farsari, M.

M. Farsari and B. N. Chichkov, “Materials processing: two-photon fabrication,” Nat. Photonics 3, 450–452 (2009).
[Crossref]

Fischer, J.

M. Thiel, J. Fischer, G. V. Freymann, and M. Wegener, “Direct laser writing of three-dimensional submicron structures using a continuous-wave laser at 532 nm,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 97, 221102 (2010).
[Crossref]

Freymann, G. V.

M. Thiel, J. Fischer, G. V. Freymann, and M. Wegener, “Direct laser writing of three-dimensional submicron structures using a continuous-wave laser at 532 nm,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 97, 221102 (2010).
[Crossref]

Hales, J. M.

Harrison, M. T.

M. Campbell, D. N. Sharp, M. T. Harrison, R. G. Denning, and A. J. Turberfield, “Fabrication of photonic crystals for the visible spectrum by holographic lithography,” Nature 404, 53–56 (2000).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Haske, W.

Heikal, A. A.

B. H. Cumpston, S. P. Ananthavel, S. Barlow, D. L. Dyer, J. E. Ehrlich, L. L. Erskine, A. A. Heikal, S. M. Kuebler, I.-Y. S. Lee, D. McCord-Maughon, J. Qin, H. Rckel, M. Rumi, X.-L. Wu, S. R. Marder, and J. W. Perry, “Two-photon polymerization initiators for three dimensional optical data storage and microfabrication,” Nature 398, 51–54 (1999).
[Crossref]

Hell, S.

Hsu, C. C.

Hunklinger, S.

Ikuta, K.

S. Maruo and K. Ikuta, “Three-dimensional microfabrication by use of single-photon-absorbed polymerization,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 76, 2656–2658 (2000).
[Crossref]

Juodkazis, S.

M. Malinauskas, P. Danileviius, and S. Juodkazis, “Three-dimensional micro-/nano-structuring via direct write polymerization with picosecond laser pulses,” Opt. Express 19, 5602–5610 (2011).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

T. Kondo, S. Matsuo, S. Juodkazis, V. Mizeikis, and H. Misawa, “Multiphoton fabrication of periodic structures by multibeam interference of femtosecond pulses,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 2758–2560 (2003).
[Crossref]

Kawata, S.

H.-B. Sun, T. Tanaka, and S. Kawata, “Three-dimensional focal spots related to two-photon excitation,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 80, 3673–3675 (2002).
[Crossref]

S. Kawata, H.-B. Sun, T. Tanaka, and K. Takada, “Finer features for functional microdevices,” Nature 412, 697–698 (2001).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Kondo, T.

T. Kondo, S. Matsuo, S. Juodkazis, V. Mizeikis, and H. Misawa, “Multiphoton fabrication of periodic structures by multibeam interference of femtosecond pulses,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 2758–2560 (2003).
[Crossref]

Kuebler, S. M.

B. H. Cumpston, S. P. Ananthavel, S. Barlow, D. L. Dyer, J. E. Ehrlich, L. L. Erskine, A. A. Heikal, S. M. Kuebler, I.-Y. S. Lee, D. McCord-Maughon, J. Qin, H. Rckel, M. Rumi, X.-L. Wu, S. R. Marder, and J. W. Perry, “Two-photon polymerization initiators for three dimensional optical data storage and microfabrication,” Nature 398, 51–54 (1999).
[Crossref]

Lai, N. D.

Lee, C.-H.

C.-H. Lee, T.-W. Chang, K.-L. Lee, J.-Y. Lin, and J. Wang, “Fabricating high-aspect-ratio sub-diffraction-limit structures on silicon with two-photon photopolymerization and reactive ion etching,” Appl. Phys. A 79, 2027– 2031 (2004).
[Crossref]

Lee, I.-Y. S.

B. H. Cumpston, S. P. Ananthavel, S. Barlow, D. L. Dyer, J. E. Ehrlich, L. L. Erskine, A. A. Heikal, S. M. Kuebler, I.-Y. S. Lee, D. McCord-Maughon, J. Qin, H. Rckel, M. Rumi, X.-L. Wu, S. R. Marder, and J. W. Perry, “Two-photon polymerization initiators for three dimensional optical data storage and microfabrication,” Nature 398, 51–54 (1999).
[Crossref]

Lee, K.-L.

C.-H. Lee, T.-W. Chang, K.-L. Lee, J.-Y. Lin, and J. Wang, “Fabricating high-aspect-ratio sub-diffraction-limit structures on silicon with two-photon photopolymerization and reactive ion etching,” Appl. Phys. A 79, 2027– 2031 (2004).
[Crossref]

Liang, W. P.

Lin, C. H.

Lin, J. H.

Lin, J.-Y.

C.-H. Lee, T.-W. Chang, K.-L. Lee, J.-Y. Lin, and J. Wang, “Fabricating high-aspect-ratio sub-diffraction-limit structures on silicon with two-photon photopolymerization and reactive ion etching,” Appl. Phys. A 79, 2027– 2031 (2004).
[Crossref]

Luyssaert, B.

Malinauskas, M.

Marder, S. R.

W. Haske, V. W. Chen, J. M. Hales, W. Dong, S. Barlow, S. R. Marder, and J. W. Perry, “65 nm feature sizes using visible wavelength 3-D multiphoton lithography,” Opt. Express 15, 3426–3436 (2007).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

B. H. Cumpston, S. P. Ananthavel, S. Barlow, D. L. Dyer, J. E. Ehrlich, L. L. Erskine, A. A. Heikal, S. M. Kuebler, I.-Y. S. Lee, D. McCord-Maughon, J. Qin, H. Rckel, M. Rumi, X.-L. Wu, S. R. Marder, and J. W. Perry, “Two-photon polymerization initiators for three dimensional optical data storage and microfabrication,” Nature 398, 51–54 (1999).
[Crossref]

Maruo, S.

S. Maruo and K. Ikuta, “Three-dimensional microfabrication by use of single-photon-absorbed polymerization,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 76, 2656–2658 (2000).
[Crossref]

Matsuo, S.

T. Kondo, S. Matsuo, S. Juodkazis, V. Mizeikis, and H. Misawa, “Multiphoton fabrication of periodic structures by multibeam interference of femtosecond pulses,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 2758–2560 (2003).
[Crossref]

McCord-Maughon, D.

B. H. Cumpston, S. P. Ananthavel, S. Barlow, D. L. Dyer, J. E. Ehrlich, L. L. Erskine, A. A. Heikal, S. M. Kuebler, I.-Y. S. Lee, D. McCord-Maughon, J. Qin, H. Rckel, M. Rumi, X.-L. Wu, S. R. Marder, and J. W. Perry, “Two-photon polymerization initiators for three dimensional optical data storage and microfabrication,” Nature 398, 51–54 (1999).
[Crossref]

Misawa, H.

T. Kondo, S. Matsuo, S. Juodkazis, V. Mizeikis, and H. Misawa, “Multiphoton fabrication of periodic structures by multibeam interference of femtosecond pulses,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 2758–2560 (2003).
[Crossref]

Mizeikis, V.

T. Kondo, S. Matsuo, S. Juodkazis, V. Mizeikis, and H. Misawa, “Multiphoton fabrication of periodic structures by multibeam interference of femtosecond pulses,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 2758–2560 (2003).
[Crossref]

Pang, Y. K.

X. Wang, J. F. Xu, H. M. Su, Z. H. Zeng, Y. L. Chen, H. Z. Wang, Y. K. Pang, and W. Y. Tam, “Three-dimensional photonic crystals fabricated by visible light holographic lithography,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 2212–2214 (2003).
[Crossref]

Parthenopoulos, D. A.

D. A. Parthenopoulos and P. M. Rentzepis, “Three-dimensional optical storage memory,” Science 245, 843–845 (1989).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Pereira, S.

M. Deubel, G. Von Freymann, M. Wegener, S. Pereira, K. Busch, and C. M. Soukoulis, “Direct laser writing of three-dimensional photonic-crystal templates for telecommunications,” Nat. Mater. 3, 444–447 (2004).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Perry, J. W.

W. Haske, V. W. Chen, J. M. Hales, W. Dong, S. Barlow, S. R. Marder, and J. W. Perry, “65 nm feature sizes using visible wavelength 3-D multiphoton lithography,” Opt. Express 15, 3426–3436 (2007).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

B. H. Cumpston, S. P. Ananthavel, S. Barlow, D. L. Dyer, J. E. Ehrlich, L. L. Erskine, A. A. Heikal, S. M. Kuebler, I.-Y. S. Lee, D. McCord-Maughon, J. Qin, H. Rckel, M. Rumi, X.-L. Wu, S. R. Marder, and J. W. Perry, “Two-photon polymerization initiators for three dimensional optical data storage and microfabrication,” Nature 398, 51–54 (1999).
[Crossref]

Qin, J.

B. H. Cumpston, S. P. Ananthavel, S. Barlow, D. L. Dyer, J. E. Ehrlich, L. L. Erskine, A. A. Heikal, S. M. Kuebler, I.-Y. S. Lee, D. McCord-Maughon, J. Qin, H. Rckel, M. Rumi, X.-L. Wu, S. R. Marder, and J. W. Perry, “Two-photon polymerization initiators for three dimensional optical data storage and microfabrication,” Nature 398, 51–54 (1999).
[Crossref]

Rckel, H.

B. H. Cumpston, S. P. Ananthavel, S. Barlow, D. L. Dyer, J. E. Ehrlich, L. L. Erskine, A. A. Heikal, S. M. Kuebler, I.-Y. S. Lee, D. McCord-Maughon, J. Qin, H. Rckel, M. Rumi, X.-L. Wu, S. R. Marder, and J. W. Perry, “Two-photon polymerization initiators for three dimensional optical data storage and microfabrication,” Nature 398, 51–54 (1999).
[Crossref]

Rensch, C.

Rentzepis, P. M.

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X. Wang, J. F. Xu, H. M. Su, Z. H. Zeng, Y. L. Chen, H. Z. Wang, Y. K. Pang, and W. Y. Tam, “Three-dimensional photonic crystals fabricated by visible light holographic lithography,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 2212–2214 (2003).
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Zeng, Z. H.

X. Wang, J. F. Xu, H. M. Su, Z. H. Zeng, Y. L. Chen, H. Z. Wang, Y. K. Pang, and W. Y. Tam, “Three-dimensional photonic crystals fabricated by visible light holographic lithography,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 2212–2214 (2003).
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Appl. Opt. (1)

Appl. Phys. A (1)

C.-H. Lee, T.-W. Chang, K.-L. Lee, J.-Y. Lin, and J. Wang, “Fabricating high-aspect-ratio sub-diffraction-limit structures on silicon with two-photon photopolymerization and reactive ion etching,” Appl. Phys. A 79, 2027– 2031 (2004).
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Appl. Phys. Lett. (5)

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J. Lightwave Technol. (1)

Nat. Biotechnol. (1)

W. R. Zipfel, R. M. Williams, and W. W. Webb, “Nonlinear magic: multiphoton microscopy in the biosciences,” Nat. Biotechnol. 21, 1369–1377 (2003).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Nat. Mater. (1)

M. Deubel, G. Von Freymann, M. Wegener, S. Pereira, K. Busch, and C. M. Soukoulis, “Direct laser writing of three-dimensional photonic-crystal templates for telecommunications,” Nat. Mater. 3, 444–447 (2004).
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Nat. Photonics (1)

M. Farsari and B. N. Chichkov, “Materials processing: two-photon fabrication,” Nat. Photonics 3, 450–452 (2009).
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Nature (3)

B. H. Cumpston, S. P. Ananthavel, S. Barlow, D. L. Dyer, J. E. Ehrlich, L. L. Erskine, A. A. Heikal, S. M. Kuebler, I.-Y. S. Lee, D. McCord-Maughon, J. Qin, H. Rckel, M. Rumi, X.-L. Wu, S. R. Marder, and J. W. Perry, “Two-photon polymerization initiators for three dimensional optical data storage and microfabrication,” Nature 398, 51–54 (1999).
[Crossref]

S. Kawata, H.-B. Sun, T. Tanaka, and K. Takada, “Finer features for functional microdevices,” Nature 412, 697–698 (2001).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

M. Campbell, D. N. Sharp, M. T. Harrison, R. G. Denning, and A. J. Turberfield, “Fabrication of photonic crystals for the visible spectrum by holographic lithography,” Nature 404, 53–56 (2000).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Opt. Express (3)

Opt. Lett. (1)

Proc. Roy. Soc. A (1)

B. Richards and E. Wolf, “Electromagnetic diffraction in optical systems. II. Structure of the image field in an aplanatic system,” Proc. Roy. Soc. A 253, 358–379 (1959).
[Crossref]

Science (2)

W. Denk, J. H. Strickler, and W. W. Webb, “Two-photon laser scanning fluorescence microscopy,” Science 248, 73–76 (1990).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

D. A. Parthenopoulos and P. M. Rentzepis, “Three-dimensional optical storage memory,” Science 245, 843–845 (1989).
[Crossref] [PubMed]

Other (2)

P. Torok and F. J. Kao, (eds.), Optical Imaging and Microscopy, 2nd ed.(Springer Series in Optical Sciences2007).

J. B. Pawley, (ed.), Handbook of Biological Confocal Microscopy, 3rd ed. (Berlin, Springer2006).
[Crossref]

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Figures (7)

Fig. 1
Fig. 1 (a) Sketch of the experimental setup used to fabricate desired sub-micrometer 3D structures. PZT: piezoelectric translator; OL: oil immersion microscope objective (×100, NA = 1.3); DM: dichroic mirror; M: mirror; QWP: quarter-wave plate; S: electronic shutter; L1-L3: lenses; PH: pinhole; F: 580 nm long-pass filter; APD: silicon avalanche photodiode. (b) Simulation of intensity distribution at the focusing region using vector Debye method, including the absorption of the material (σ = 723 m−1). The two curves represent the intensities distributions along transverse (x- or y-axis) and longitudinal (z-axis) directions, respectively, at a 10λ depth.

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Fig. 2
Fig. 2 (a) Absorption spectrum of SU8 photoresist, plotted on a logarithmic scale. (b) Fluorescence photon number versus excitation intensity. Square dots are experimental data and continuous line is a linear fit.

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Fig. 3
Fig. 3 Fabrication of voxels at different z-positions and with different exposure times. (a) Identical voxels array realized at different z-positions. (b) Example of a voxels array at z4 showing the effect of exposure time, i.e., dose. The yellow color curves indicate the shape of the voxel as a function of the exposure time (t1, t2 and t3, etc.). (c) Theoretical calculation of the contour plot of light intensity at the focusing region of the used OL (NA= 1.3, n= 1.515, λ = 532 nm). This explains the evolution of the voxel shape as a function of the exposure dose as shown in (b). (d) An array of touching voxels fabricated with low dose (short exposure time, t1), showing an ellipsoidal form similar to results obtained by the TPA method.

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Fig. 4
Fig. 4 (a) SEM image of a voxels array fabricated at different exposure times and with P = 2.5 mW. (b) Exposure time dependence of voxel size, with different laser power values, P = 2.5 mW; 5 mW; 7.5 mW, respectively. The continuous curves are obtained by a tentative fit using the diameter-dose relationship for one-photon absorption [18, 19]. Insert shows a SEM image of a small voxel obtained with an exposure time of 0.5 second at a laser power of 2.5 mW.

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Fig. 5
Fig. 5 SEM image of a chiral structure fabricated with the following parameters: distance between rods = 2 μm; distance between layers = 0.75 μm; number of layers = 20; laser power = 2.8 mW. (a) View of the whole structure, (b) Zoom in on the top surface of the structure, and (c) Side view of the structure.

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Fig. 6
Fig. 6 SEM image of a spiral structure fabricated with the following parameters: diameter of a spiral = 2 μm; period of spiral in z direction = 2 μm; distance between centers of two close spirals = 2.5 μm; spiral height = 15 μm; laser power = 2.6 mW. (a) View of the whole structure, (b) Zoom in the top surface of the structure, and (c) Side view of the structure.

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Fig. 7
Fig. 7 Dependence of voxel sizes on separation distance between voxels, showing the influence of energy accumulation from this focusing spot to others. Insets show simulated images (blue background) and SEM images (black background) of 2D submicrometer voxels array fabricated with different distances between two voxels: 2 μm; 1 μm; 0.5 μm.

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